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Circumcision is not commonly performed
in most European countries, and routine infant
circumcision does not exist.
The circumcision rate is generally estimated to be
around 10-15%, but this rate varies greatly from
country to country. E.g., before the Second World
War, circumcision was quite popular in Great Britain,
with a circumicision rate of around 30%. This changed,
however, after the War, when the National Health Service
became Government operated. In order to save money,
most elective procedures and surgeries (including
circumcision) were done away with.
There are many reasons for the general absence of circumcision.
Probably the most important one is ignorance:
most Europeans are not aware of the fact that
circumcision is not only a religious rite, but
is also performed for health and cultural reasons.
This lack of knowledge about
circumcision is discussed in many of
the testimonies from European men
in the section
Personal Testimonies.
The ignorance about circumcision is furthermore
enforced by existing taboos, many of which
are related to its religious connotations.
In many European societies there is still
a lingering, and often strong, Anti-Semitic
sentiment. Since being circumcised is
perceived by most Europeans to be a sign of being Jewish
(or Muslim), many parents will
be hesitant to circumcise their sons for
fear that they might be taunted or harassed
(or worse). There are unfortunately enough harrowing cases in
the news about skinheads attacking people
as well as property that they regard as being Jewish to
support this fear.
However, there are signs that attitudes are starting to change.
After the Second World War, and especially since
the sixties, there has been a large influx of
Muslim immigrants to Europe (people from India
and Pakistan to Great Britian, North Africans
to France, and Turks to Germany).
Since these immigrants are mostly Muslim, and
nowadays form a sizable portion of the
population of the countries they live in,
the subject of circumcision has
become more broadly known through
reports in the media. This, in turn, has
laid the foundation for a more open discussion
of the subject. As a result, many people have
become interested in the subject, and circumcision
rates amongst Europeans are starting to increase
(for links to German internet sites,
see here).
Circumcision is practiced by many different cultures all over
Africa. In the predominantly Muslim Northern and Western Africa,
circumcision is practiced as a religious rite, while in
Eastern and Southern Africa circumcision is considered as
a rite of passage into manhood. As an initiation rite, it
has been part of the various cultures that practice it for
as long as people can remember. Although the different
tribes have different circumcision ceremonies, there are
still many things that they have in common.
A very typical
case is the Xhosa ceremony. Before a Xhosa boy is considerd
to be a man by the others of his tribe, he has to to go
through the initiation of the Khwetha, or circumcision lodge.
Otherwise he would still be considered a boy and no
girl would consider marrying him.
During the time of the initiation, the young men live in
special huts, secluded from the rest of the tribe and
especially from any females. They undergo training and endurance
tests, which require great discipline.
All aspects of the initiation are kept very secret.
The boys cover themselves all over with white sandstone
and wrap themselves in a reed skirt
and a reed cone headdress with a fringe-like mask.
During the ceremony, which can take more than a week,
they also perform ritual dances imitating animals,
usually a bull.
Finally when the day of the circumcision comes they
burn all the items that they have used in the rituals
including the huts. After the circumcision they are
required to bury their foreskin and
are driven to the river while being beaten by the
initiators. Finally all the white sandstone is washed
from their bodies and with it the last vestiges of their
youth. They return to their villages and are daubed with
red ochre which is not removed for another three months.
After this, they are considered to be men.
In his autobiography, A long Walk to Freedom,
President Nelson Mandela gave a very moving
account of his own initiation.
Links To More Information about African Circumcision Rites
Lack of Circumcision and the spread of AIDS in Africa
The connection between circumcision and HIV infection
on the African Continent has been studied in great detail.
The reason for this is twofold: firstly, the majority
of HIV infections occur in heterosexual persons, and
secondly, circumcision is very often practiced by some tribes and
not by others in the same geographical region.
Epidemiologic evidence, accumulated over many years,
has provided conclusive evidence that HIV infections
are more prevalent among uncircumcised men
[1].
A recent study of more then ten thousand men in Tanzania
has found that the risk of infection with the HIV virus
during sexual intercourse is reduced by as much as a third
in circumcised men [2].
Many other independent studies have reached the same
conclusion [3],
[4].
One of the main reasons for the reduced risk of infection is
the absence of the foreskin, which is very prone to injuries,
makes it harder for the HIV virus to be transmitted.
More information about the connection between the
lack of circumcision and the spread of STD (including HIV)
can be found in the Section
The Lack of Circumcision and
Sexually Transmitted Diseases. For an excellent
review about AIDS in Africa, see here.
1. E.J. Schoen,
Circumcision Updated-Indicated?
Pediatrics 1993; 92: 860-1; and references therein
2.
Urassa M et al.
Male circumcision and susceptibility to HIV infection among
men in Tanzania
AIDS 1997: 11; 73-79
3.
Kiwanuka N, Gray R et al.
Religion, behaviours, and circumcision as determinants of HIV dynamics
in rural Uganda
AIDSLINE MED
4.
Seed J, Allen S, Mertens T et al.
Male circumcision, sexually transmitted disease, and risk of HIV
AIDSLINE MED
Circumcision Performed as a Religious Rite
For both Jews and Muslims the practice of circumcision
has a great religious significance.
For Jews, it was introduced as part of Godīs covenant
with Abraham. In accordance with this covenant, all
infant boys must be circumcised on the eighth day by
a trained religious person called a Mohel.
Of all of the commandments in Judaism,
the brit milah (literally, Covenant of Circumcision) is probably the one
most universally observed. It is commonly referred to as a bris (covenant,
using the Ashkenazic pronunciation). Even the
most secular of Jews, who observe no other part of Judaism, are almost always
circumcised. Of course, in the United States, the majority of
males are routinely
circumcised, so this doesn't seem very surprising. But keep in mind that
there is more to the ritual of the brit milah than merely the process of
physically removing the foreskin, and many otherwise non-observant
Jews observe
the entire ritual.
The commandment to circumcise is given
at Gen. 17:10-14 and Lev. 12:3.
The covenant was originally made with
Abraham. It is the first commandment specific to the Jews.
Like so many Jewish commandments, the brit milah is commonly perceived to
be a hygienic measure; however the biblical
text states the reason for this commandment quite clearly: circumcision
is an outward physical sign of the eternal covenant between
God and the Jewish people. It is also a sign
that the Jewish people will be perpetuated through the circumcised man.
The health benefits of this practice are merely incidental.
It is worth noting,
however, that circumcised males have a lower risk of certain cancers, and
the sexual partners of circumcised males also have a lower risk of certain
cancers.
The commandment is binding upon both the father of the child and the child
himself. If a father does not have his son circumcised, the son is obligated
to have himself circumcised as soon as he becomes an adult. A person who
is uncircumcised suffers the penalty of kareit, spiritual excision; in other
words, regardless of how good a Jew he is in all other ways, a man has no
place in the "World to Come" if he is uncircumcised.
Circumcision is performed when the child is eight
days old.
The day the child is born counts as the first day, thus if the child
is born on a Wednesday, he is circumcised on the following Wednesday. Keep
in mind that Jewish days begin at sunset,
so if the child is born on a Wednesday evening, he is circumcised the following
Thursday. Circumcisions are performed on Shabbat,
even though they involve the drawing of blood which is ordinarily forbidden
on the sabbath. The Bible does not specify
a reason for the choice of the eighth day; however, modern medicine has revealed
that an infant's blood clotting mechanism stabilizes on the eighth day after
birth. As with almost any commandment, circumcision can be postponed for
health reasons. Jewish law provides that where
the child's health is at issue, circumcision must wait until seven days after
a doctor declares the child healthy enough to undergo the procedure.
Circumcision involves surgically removing the foreskin of the penis. Although
some cultures have a similar circumcision ritual for females, circumcision
in Judaism applies only to males. The circumcision is performed by a mohel,
an observant Jew educated in the
relevant Jewish law and in surgical techniques. Circumcision performed by
a regular physician does not qualify as a valid brit milah, regardless of
whether a rabbi says a blessing over it, because
the removal of the foreskin is itself a religious ritual that must be performed
by someone religiously qualified.
If the child is born without a foreskin (it happens occasionally), or if
the child was previously circumcised without the appropriate religious intent
or in a manner that rendered the circumcision religiously invalid, a symbolic
circumcision may be performed by taking a pinprick of blood from the tip
of the penis. This is referred to as hatafat dam brit.
While the circumcision is performed, the child is held by a person called
a sandek (godfather).
The sandek is usually a grandparent or the
family rabbi. Traditionally, a chair (often an ornate one) is set aside for
Elijah, who is said to preside over all circumcisions. Various
blessings are recited, including one over
wine, and a drop of wine is placed in the child's mouth. The child is then
given a formal Hebrew name.
It is not necessary to have a minyan (prayer) for a
bris, but it is desirable if feasible.
As with most Jewish life events, the ritual is followed by refreshments or
a festive meal.
Circumcision mentioned in the Bible:
Circumcision and Islam:
In Islam, the practice of circumcision does not stem
directly from the the Koran, but instead from the
example of the Prophet Mohammed. It constitutes one of
the rules of cleanliness of the Islamic faith.
In most Islamic societies, boys are circumcised not
as infants but instead between the ages of 2-14.
On a social level, circumcision is considered
as the religious introduction of a child into
his society as well as an important step for
the transition to manhood. This is also the
main reason why the circumcision ceremony
(which can be quite an elaborate affair
depending on the financial means of the parents)
is postponed until the child can appreciate
the significance of the procedure.
Links To More Information about Jewish Circumcision on the Internet
Links To More Information about Islamic Circumcision on the Internet
References
(Judaism and Islam)
For more information,
click here.
Information about all aspects of Bris and
also about other aspects about circumcision.
Information about Brit-Mila by Rabbi Raphael Malka.
Circumcision (Al-Khitaan).
Islam: the Swiss perspective
